Logical fallacies

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Ad hominem

This fallacy occurs when someone attacks the person making an argument rather than the argument itself. The term originates from Latin, meaning "to the person," and was systematically described by Aristotle, a foundational figure in philosophy and logic.

Ambiguity

Exploiting ambiguous language to mislead or misrepresent the truth. This fallacy was discussed by Aristotle in his Organon. Aristotle is known for his contributions to philosophy and the study of logic.

Anecdotal

Relying on personal experience or an isolated example instead of sound evidence. While no single originator is tied to it, it has been critiqued in scientific skepticism by figures like Carl Sagan, a renowned astrophysicist and science communicator.

Appeal to authority

Asserting that a claim is true simply because an authority figure endorses it. This concept was also analyzed by Aristotle, who explored appeals and rhetoric.

Appeal to emotion

Manipulating emotions to win an argument rather than relying on logical reasoning. Aristotle touched on the role of emotion in persuasion in his work Rhetoric.

Appeal to nature

Arguing something is good or right because it is "natural." Jean-Jacques Rousseau, a philosopher known for his views on human nature, is often associated with early critiques of this reasoning.

Bandwagon

Suggesting something is true or right because it is popular. This fallacy relates to social conformity, a concept studied in depth by social psychologists like Solomon Asch.

Begging the question

A circular argument where the conclusion is included in the premise. Aristotle first categorized this in his Organon.

Black or white

Presenting only two alternatives when more exist. This false dichotomy was critiqued by John Stuart Mill, a philosopher known for his work on logic and reasoning.

Burden of proof

Placing the onus of disproving a claim on others rather than providing evidence for it. This principle was discussed in legal contexts by Cicero, a Roman lawyer and philosopher.

Composition/division

Assuming what is true of the part is true of the whole, or vice versa. This fallacy was explored by Aristotle in his logical works.

False cause

Presuming a relationship between two events implies causation. David Hume, a philosopher known for his work on causation, critiqued this reasoning in A Treatise of Human Nature.

Gambler's fallacy

Believing that past events affect the likelihood of independent future events. Studied by psychologists and mathematicians like Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman, pioneers in cognitive bias research.

Loaded question

Asking a question with a presupposition built in, making it unanswerable without appearing guilty. This technique was critiqued by early philosophers such as Socrates.

Middle ground

Assuming the middle position between two extremes is always correct. This reasoning has been critiqued in ethical and political discussions by figures like Immanuel Kant, a philosopher known for his work on morality.

No true Scotsman

Arbitrarily redefining a group to exclude counterexamples to a claim. The term was coined by philosopher Antony Flew, known for his work on logic and philosophy of religion.

Personal incredulity

Dismissing something as untrue because it is difficult to understand. Richard Dawkins, an evolutionary biologist and science advocate, often critiques this in discussions of science denial.

Slippery slope

Asserting that one action will inevitably lead to a chain of events without evidence for such inevitability. This reasoning was criticized in modern logic by figures like Bertrand Russell.

Special pleading

Creating exceptions when a claim is shown to be false. Often discussed in the context of cognitive biases, especially by modern philosophers and psychologists like Daniel Kahneman.

Strawman

Misrepresenting someone's argument to make it easier to attack. This concept has roots in Aristotle's work on rhetoric and dialectic.

Texas sharpshooter

Cherry-picking data to support a conclusion while ignoring contradictory evidence. The name was popularized in modern discussions on statistical fallacies.

The fallacy fallacy

Assuming that just because an argument contains a fallacy, its conclusion must be false. This error is discussed in contemporary logic and critical thinking texts.

Tu quoque

Responding to criticism by accusing the accuser of similar faults. This form of ad hominem argument was analyzed in ancient Greek rhetoric.