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Passive Aggressive Behaviour & PAPD

"Passive aggressive" was first used clinically during World War II to describe soldiers who refused to comply with officers’ demands (Millon, 1981, cited in Hopwood CJ, Wright AG. 2012).

Passive-Aggressive Personality Disorder (PAPD) was a disorder in the DSM up until version IV, with its removal questioned.

DSM-III-R PAPD Criteria (from the above paper):

  • Procrastination.
  • Getting irritable rather than openly refusing requests.
  • Screwing things up for people they resent.
  • Resenting demands outside their perceived job role.
  • Forgetfulness about things they don't want to do.
  • Feeling unappreciated for hard work.
  • Resenting suggestions for improvement.
  • Believing they do a better job than supervisors think.
  • Criticising people in authority.

As you might be able to tell, the intent for a couple of the above would be the the difference between the behaviour being passive aggressive and something else.

Should PAPD have been removed from the DSM? Quite a few studies don't think so.

Construct validity - whether the construct or concept, task really does measure what it is claiming to measure.

There are also studies arguing for less consistency in PAPD. One of the core reasons for its removal was the idea passive aggressiveness is situational, not a personality trait.

A few more studies and research

5 types of passive aggressive behaviour

In 1974, clinical psychologist George Bach categorised passive aggressive behaviour into 5 types in The Art of Assertive Living (1974):

1. Pseudoaccommodators

Pretend to agree or accommodate to others' needs while secretly planning not to follow through.

Example: Saying "Sure, I'll do that!" but having no intention of actually doing it.

2. Guiltmakers

Intentionally make others feel guilty or responsible for hardship.
Agreeing to do something but then making the other person feel responsible for any burden: "Well, I did it, but now I'm exhausted and my back hurts".

3. Jokers

Use humor as a disguise to say hurtful things.

Examples: making cutting remarks dressed up as jokes, then claiming "I was just kidding!" when confronted, singing provactive song lyrics then acting like it's "just a song I like".

4. Trivial Tyrannizers (Subtle Saboteurs)

Intentionally do small things to annoy others.

Examples: leaving dishes in the sink, "forgetting" important dates, being chronically late.

5. Withholders

Punish others by withholding something valuable (affection, information, cooperation, approval).

Examples: silent treatment, refusing to share important information, emotional withdrawal.

Signe Whitson (co-author of The Angry Smile) describes five levels of escalating passive aggression:

Level 1: Temporary Compliance

  • Verbally agrees but behaviorally delays
  • Example: "I'm coming!" (but never actually comes)

Level 2: Intentional Inefficiency

  • Complies but does it poorly/incorrectly on purpose
  • Does the task "wrong" so they won't be asked again

Level 3: Letting a Problem Escalate

  • Uses inaction to allow foreseeable problems to worsen
  • Takes pleasure in the resulting distress

Level 4: Hidden but Conscious Revenge

  • Deliberately sabotages or undermines
  • More calculated and vindictive

Level 5: Self-Deprecation

  • Uses apparent self-punishment to manipulate others
  • "I'm so worthless, I can't do anything right" (to avoid responsibility)