Cognitive Biases
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Actor-observer asymmetry
Tendency to attribute others' actions to their character while attributing one's own actions to external factors. First discussed by Edward Jones and Richard Nisbett in 1971, both psychologists specializing in social cognition.
Authority bias
Over-reliance on authority figures when making decisions or forming opinions. Introduced through Stanley Milgram's obedience experiments in 1963, Milgram was a psychologist known for his work on authority and conformity.
Availability heuristic
Judging the likelihood of events based on how easily examples come to mind. First proposed by Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman in 1973, both renowned psychologists and pioneers in behavioral economics.
Barnum effect
Belief that vague, general statements (like horoscopes) are specifically applicable to oneself. Coined by psychologist Paul Meehl in 1956, known for his work on clinical psychology and prediction.
Bizarreness effect
Tendency to remember bizarre or unusual information better than commonplace information. Explored by McDaniel and Einstein in 1986, both researchers in cognitive psychology.
Cheerleader effect
People appear more attractive in a group than individually. Popularized by Drew Walker and Edward Vul in 2013, both cognitive scientists.
Confirmation bias
Favoring information that confirms preexisting beliefs while disregarding contradictory evidence. Discussed extensively by Peter Wason in 1960, a cognitive psychologist known for his work on reasoning and problem-solving.
Defensive attribution
Explaining others' misfortunes as their own fault to avoid the fear of being similarly vulnerable. First explored by Shaver in 1970, a psychologist focusing on attribution theory.
Egocentric bias
Overestimating the importance of oneself in events or outcomes. Pioneered in self-perception studies by Thomas Gilovich in the 1980s, a psychologist known for work on judgment and decision-making.
False consensus effect
Overestimating the extent to which others share one’s beliefs or behaviors. Identified by Lee Ross and colleagues in 1977, Ross was a psychologist recognized for his research on social perception and conflict resolution.
Fundamental attribution error
Overemphasis on personal characteristics to explain others' behaviors, neglecting situational factors. Coined by Lee Ross in 1977, a psychologist focusing on attribution errors.
Group attribution error
Assuming that group decisions or outcomes reflect the individual preferences of all group members. Studied by Allport in 1924, a foundational figure in social psychology.
Hindsight bias
Belief that one "knew it all along" after an event has occurred. First studied by Baruch Fischhoff in 1975, a psychologist known for his work in risk perception.
Illusion of asymmetric insight
Belief that one understands others better than they understand themselves or others. Discussed by Pronin et al. in 2001, researchers in the field of social and cognitive psychology.
Mood-congruent memory bias
Remembering information consistent with one’s current mood. Explored in depth by Gordon Bower in 1981, a psychologist specializing in memory and emotion.
Rosy retrospection
Recalling past events as being more positive than they were at the time. Investigated by Mitchell, Thompson, and others in the 1990s, cognitive psychologists studying memory.
Self-serving attributional bias
Attributing successes to personal qualities and failures to external factors. Commonly explored by Zuckerman in 1979, a psychologist known for personality studies.
Self-serving bias
Perceiving oneself in an overly favorable manner. Discussed widely in psychology by Greenwald in 1980, a social psychologist and cognitive researcher.
Source confusion
Misremembering the origin of a piece of information. Examined in studies of memory by Schacter in 1996, a psychologist specializing in memory and amnesia.
Spacing effect
Information is better retained when learning sessions are spaced out over time. First described by Hermann Ebbinghaus in 1885, a pioneering psychologist in experimental memory research.
Suggestibility
Tendency to incorporate misleading information from external sources into personal recollections. Studied extensively by Elizabeth Loftus in the 1970s, a psychologist renowned for her work on memory and eyewitness testimony.
Telescoping effect
Misjudging the time elapsed since past events, usually perceiving recent events as more distant and distant events as more recent. Explored in surveys by Rubin and Baddeley in the 1980s, both experts in memory research.
Testing effect
Improved memory performance resulting from retrieval practice or self-testing. Described by Roediger and Karpicke in 2006, cognitive psychologists focusing on learning techniques.
Ultimate attribution error
Extending the fundamental attribution error to entire groups, often in the context of stereotypes. Coined by Pettigrew in 1979, a social psychologist known for his work on intergroup relations.
Von Restorff effect (isolation effect)
Improved recall for items that stand out from their context. Identified by Hedwig von Restorff in 1933, a German psychologist specializing in memory studies.